Influence of food supplementation on the fitness of two biological control agents: a predatory nabid bug and a bollworm pupal parasitoid

Many arthropod predators and parasitoids exhibit either stage-specific or lifetime omnivory, in that they include extra-floral nectar, floral nectar, honeydew or pollen in their immature and/or adult diet. Access to these plant-derived foods can enhance pest suppression by increasing both the individual fitness and local density of natural enemies. Commercial products such as Amino-Feed®, Envirofeast®, and Pred-Feed® can be applied to crops to act as artificial-plant-derived foods. In laboratory and glasshouse experiments we examined the influence of carbohydrate and protein rich Amino-Feed UV® or Amino-Feed, respectively, on the fitness of a predatory nabid bug Nabis kinbergii Reuter (Hemiptera: Nabidae) and bollworm pupal parasitoid Ichneumon promissorius (Erichson) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Under the chosen conditions, the provision of either wet or dry residues of Amino-Feed UV had no discernable effect on immediate or longer-term survival and immature development times of N. kinbergii. In contrast, the provision of honey, Amino-Feed plus extrafloral nectar, and extrafloral nectar alone had a marked effect on the longevity of I. promissorius, indicating that they were limited by at least carbohydrates as an energy source, but probably not protein. Compared with a water only diet, the provision of Amino-Feed plus extrafloral nectar increased the longevity of males and females of I. promissorius by 3.0- and 2.4-fold, respectively. Not only did female parasitoids live longer when provided food, but the total number of eggs laid and timing of deposition was affected by diet under the chosen conditions. Notably, females in the water and honey treatments deposited greater numbers of eggs earlier in the trial, but this trend was unable to be sustained over their lifetime. Egg numbers in these treatments subsequently fell below the levels achieved by females in the Amino-Feed plus extrafloral nectar and cotton extrafloral nectar only treatments. Furthermore, there were times when the inclusion of the Amino-Feed was beneficial compared with cotton extrafloral nectar only. Artificial food supplements and plant-derived foods are worthy of further investigation because they have potential to improve the ecosystem service of biological pest control in targeted agroecosystems by providing natural enemies with an alternative source of nutrition, particularly during periods of prey/host scarcity.

Protein supplementation and growth enhancer strategies in successive years to maximise growth of Brahman cross steers grazing sown grass pastures on brigalow lands

A strategy comprising a winter/spring protein supplement, rumen modifier and hormonal growth promotant (Compudose 400) was used in either the first year (Tl), second year (T2), or in both years (T1+2) following weaning in Brahman cross steers as a means of increasing liveweight gain up to 2.5 years of age. T2 produced the heaviest final liveweight (544.7 kg) and highest overall liveweight gain (366.7 kg), but these were not significantly different from T1 (538.6 kg; 360.9 kg), or T1+2 (528.7 kg; 349.3 kg). However, final liveweight and overall liveweight gains of T1 and T2 but not T1+2 were significantly greater than for untreated (C) steers (504.9 kg; 325.2 kg, both P < 0.05). Regardless of the strategy imposed, liveweight and liveweight gain were enhanced, however final liveweights in each treatment were below the preferred minimum target liveweight (570-580 kg) for premium export markets. Treatment in both years gave no benefit over treatment in 1 year only. 19th Biennial Conference. 5-9 July 1992. LaTrobe University, Melbourne.

Using automated supplementation systems to meet growth targets for grazing sheep

Remote drafting technology now available for sheep allows targeted supplementation of individuals within a grazing flock. This paper reports results of three experiments. Experiment 1 examined the weight change of Merino wethers allowed access to either lupin grain or whole cottonseed 0, 1, 2 or 7 days/week for 6 weeks. Experiment 2 examined the weight change of Merino wethers allowed access to either lupins or a sorghum + cottonseed meal (CSM) supplement 0, 2, 4 or 7 days/week for 8 weeks. Experiment 3 investigated the relationship between five allocations of trough space at the supplement self-feeders (5–50 cm/sheep) and the weight change of Merino wethers allowed access to lupins 1 day/week for 8 weeks. In all experiments, the Merino wethers had free access as a single group to drinking water and low quality hay in a large group pen and were allowed access to supplement once per day on their scheduled days of access. No water was available in the areas containing supplement, but one-way flow gates allowed animals to return to the group pen in their own time. There was a linear response in growth rate to increased frequency of access to lupins in Experiments 1 and 2, with each additional day of access increasing liveweight gain by 26 and 21 g/day, respectively. Similarly, the response to the sorghum + CSM supplement was linear, although significantly lower (P < 0.05), at 12 g/day. Providing access to whole cottonseed resulted in no significant change in growth rate compared with the control animals. In Experiment 3, decreasing trough space from 50 to 5 cm/sheep had no effect on sheep liveweight change. It was concluded that the relationships developed here, for growth response to increased frequency of access to lupins or a sorghum + CSM supplement, could be used to indicate the most appropriate frequency of access to supplement, through a remote drafting unit, to achieve sheep weight change targets. Also, that a trough space of 5 cm/sheep appears adequate in this supplementation system.

Developmental and growth controls of tillering and water-soluble carbohydrate accumulation in contrasting wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes: can we dissect them?

In wheat, tillering and water-soluble carbohydrates (WSCs) in the stem are potential traits for adaptation to different environments and are of interest as targets for selective breeding. This study investigated the observation that a high stem WSC concentration (WSCc) is often related to low tillering. The proposition tested was that stem WSC accumulation is plant density dependent and could be an emergent property of tillering, whether driven by genotype or by environment. A small subset of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) contrasting for tillering was grown at different plant densities or on different sowing dates in multiple field experiments. Both tillering and WSCc were highly influenced by the environment, with a smaller, distinct genotypic component; the genotypeenvironment range covered 350750 stems m(2) and 25210mg g(1) WSCc. Stem WSCc was inversely related to stem number m(2), but genotypic rankings for stem WSCc persisted when RILs were compared at similar stem density. Low tilleringhigh WSCc RILs had similar leaf area index, larger individual leaves, and stems with larger internode cross-section and wall area when compared with high tilleringlow WSCc RILs. The maximum number of stems per plant was positively associated with growth and relative growth rate per plant, tillering rate and duration, and also, in some treatments, with leaf appearance rate and final leaf number. A common threshold of the red:far red ratio (0.390.44; standard error of the difference0.055) coincided with the maximum stem number per plant across genotypes and plant densities, and could be effectively used in crop simulation modelling as a ocut-off' rule for tillering. The relationship between tillering, WSCc, and their component traits, as well as the possible implications for crop simulation and breeding, is discussed.

Spirulina (Spirulina platensis) algae supplementation increases microbial protein production and feed intake and decreases retention time of digesta in the rumen of cattle

Cattle consuming pastures low in protein have low liveweight gain due to low rumen degradable protein (RDP) supply and thus low microbial crude protein (MCP) production and efficiency of MCP production [EMCP, g MCP/kg digestible organic matter (DOM)]. Nitrogen supplements can increase MCP production and EMCP of cattle grazing low protein pastures. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of supplementation with a non-protein-N source (NPN), in this case urea and ammonium sulfate (US), with a single-cell algal protein source (Spirulina platensis), on intake, microbial protein supply and digestibility in cattle. Nine cannulated Bos indicus steers [initial liveweight 250.1 ± 10.86 (s.d.) kg] were fed Mitchell grass hay (Astrebla spp; 6.1 g N, 746 g NDF/kg DM) ad libitum and were supplied with increasing amounts of US (0, 6, 13, 19 and 33 g US DM/kg hay DM) or Spirulina 0, 0.5, 1.4, 2.5 and 6.1 g Spirulina DM/kg W.day in an incomplete Latin square design. The response of MCP production and EMCP to increasing amounts of the two supplements was different, with a greater response to Spirulina evident. The MCP production was predicted to peak at 140 and 568 g MCP/day (0.64 and 2.02 g MCP/kg W.day) for the US and Spirulina supplements, respectively. The highest measured EMCP were 92 and 166 g MCP/kg DOM for the US and Spirulina treatments at 170 and 290 g RDP/kg DOM, respectively, or a Spirulina intake of 5.7 g DM/kg W.day. Increasing RDP intake from US and Spirulina resulted in an increase in Mitchell grass hay intake and rumen NH3-N concentration and reduced the retention time of liquid and particulate markers and digesta DM, NDF and lignin in the rumen with greater changes due to Spirulina. Total DM intake peaked at a Spirulina supplement level of 4.6 g Spirulina DM/kg W.day with a 2.3-fold higher DOM intake than Control steers. Rumen NH3-N concentrations reached 128 and 264 mg NH3-N/L for the US and Spirulina treatments with a significant increase in the concentration of branched-chain fatty acids for the Spirulina treatment. The minimum retention time of liquid (Cr-EDTA; 23 and 13 h) and particulate (Yb; 34 and 22 h) markers in the rumen were significantly lower for Spirulina compared with US and lower than unsupplemented animals at 24 and 34 h for Cr-EDTA and Yb, respectively. Spirulina could be provided safely at much higher N intakes than NPN supplements. The results suggest that, at an equivalent RDP supply, Spirulina provided greater increases than US in MCP production, EMCP and feed intake of Bos indicus cattle consuming low protein forage and could also be fed safely at higher levels of N intake.

Improving cost-effectiveness of supplementation systems for breeder herds in northern Australia

Low level strategic supplements constitute one of the few options for northern beef producers to increase breeder productivity and profitability. Objectives of the project were to improve the cost-effectiveness of using such supplements and to improve supplement delivery systems. Urea-based supplements fed during the dry season can substantially reduce breeder liveweight loss and increase fertility during severe dry seasons. Also when fed during the late wet season these supplements increased breeder body liveweight and increased fertility of breeders in low body condition. Intake of dry lick supplements fed free choice is apparently determined primarily by the palatability of supplements relative to pasture, and training of cattle appears to be of limited importance. Siting of supplementation points has some effect on supplement intake, but little effect on grazing behaviour. Economic analysis of supplementation (urea, phosphorus or molasses) and weaning strategies was based on the relative efficacy of these strategies to maintain breeder body condition late in the dry season. Adequate body condition of breeders at this time of the year is needed to avoid mortality from under-nutrition and achieve satisfactory fertility of breeders during the following wet season. Supplements were highly cost-effective when they reduced mortality, but economic returns were generally low if the only benefit was increased fertility.

Supplementation of cattle fed tropical grasses with microalgae increases microbial protein production and average daily gain

A series of 3 experiments were conducted to evaluate the use of microalgae as supplements for ruminants consuming low-CP tropical grasses. In Exp. 1, the chemical composition and in vitro protein degradability of 9 algae species and 4 protein supplements were determined. In Exp. 2, rumen function and microbial protein (MCP) production were determined in Bos indicus steers fed speargrass hay alone or supplemented with Spirulina platensis, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Dunaliella salina, or cottonseed meal (CSM). In Exp. 3, DMI and ADG were determined in B. indicus steers fed speargrass hay alone or supplemented with increasing amounts of NPN (urea combined with ammonia sulfate), CSM, or S. platensis. In Exp. 1, the CP content of S. platensis and C. pyrenoidosa (675 and 580 g/kg DM) was highest among the algae species and higher than the other protein supplements evaluated, and Schizochytrium sp. had the highest crude lipid (CL) content (198 g/kg DM). In Exp. 2, S. platensis supplementation increased speargrass hay intake, the efficiency of MCP production, the fractional outflow rate of digesta from the rumen, the concentration of NH3N, and the molar proportion of branched-chain fatty acids in the rumen fluid of steers above all other treatments. Dunaliella salina acceptance by steers was low and this resulted in no significant difference to unsupplemented steers for all parameters measured for this algae supplement. In Exp. 3, ADG linearly increased with increasing supplementary N intake from both S. platensis and NPN, with no difference between the 2 supplements. In contrast, ADG quadratically increased with increasing supplementary N intake from CSM. It was concluded that S. platensis and C. pyrenoidosa may potentially be used as protein sources for cattle grazing low-CP pastures.

An evaluation of carbon offset supplementation options for beef production systems on coastal speargrass in central Queensland, Australia

In 2014, the Australian Government implemented the Emissions Reduction Fund to offer incentives for businesses to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by following approved methods. Beef cattle businesses in northern Australia can participate by applying the 'reducing GHG emissions by feeding nitrates to beef cattle' methodology and the 'beef cattle herd management' methods. The nitrate (NO3) method requires that each baseline area must demonstrate a history of urea use. Projects earn Australian carbon credit units (ACCU) for reducing enteric methane emissions by substituting NO3 for urea at the same amount of fed nitrogen. NO3 must be fed in the form of a lick block because most operations do not have labour or equipment to manage daily supplementation. NO3 concentrations, after a 2-week adaptation period, must not exceed 50 g NO3/adult animal equivalent per day or 7 g NO3/kg dry matter intake per day to reduce the risk of NO3 toxicity. There is also a 'beef cattle herd management' method, approved in 2015, that covers activities that improve the herd emission intensity (emissions per unit of product sold) through change in the diet or management. The present study was conducted to compare the required ACCU or supplement prices for a 2% return on capital when feeding a low or high supplement concentration to breeding stock of either (1) urea, (2) three different forms of NO3 or (3) cottonseed meal (CSM), at N concentrations equivalent to 25 or 50 g urea/animal equivalent, to fasten steer entry to a feedlot (backgrounding), in a typical breeder herd on the coastal speargrass land types in central Queensland. Monte Carlo simulations were run using the software @risk, with probability functions used for (1) urea, NO3 and CSM prices, (2) GHG mitigation, (3) livestock prices and (4) carbon price. Increasing the weight of steers at a set turnoff month by feeding CSM was found to be the most cost-effective option, with or without including the offset income. The required ACCU prices for a 2% return on capital were an order of magnitude higher than were indicative carbon prices in 2015 for the three forms of NO3. The likely costs of participating in ERF projects would reduce the return on capital for all mitigation options. © CSIRO 2016.